Mental Health: Concepts of Race and Gender

intellectual wellness Concepts of Race and GenderMental distress/disorder as a function of the society we live in implications for the practice of cordial health favorable work in terms of gender and race knowledgeablenessMental unwellness/disorder/distress is a rather ambiguous umbrella term for describing a wide range of diverse disorders of the mind. According to the Oxford medical examination Dictionary, affable ailment is a disorder of one or to a greater extent of the functions of the mind ( such(prenominal) as emotion, perception, memory, or thought), which causes suffering to the patient or others (Oxford Medical Dictionary, 2007). The orbicular burden of psychic illness was estimated at 12.3% at the beginning of the millennium and is expected to rise even further in the next decade (Murray and Lopez, 1997 Patel et al, 2006). unfavourable perspectives that refute the biological definitions of mental illness started to arise in the 1960s. Szasz (1961) and other cri tical theorists have continually challenged the classification of normal and abnormal behavioural categories, and centre instead on the role of social factors on the learning of mental illness (Martin, 2003). Key among these factors be gender, race and ethnicity, sexual preference, age and class.Apart from some(prenominal) medical theories that explain the aetiology of mental illness with neurological chemical imbalances, the actual causes of such psychological disorders atomic number 18 largely unknown. However, as poplined above, in that respect argon myriad known factors that trigger or prompt such mental impairment. Work stress and work-related psychosocial conditions, for example, plays an important role in self-reported mental health (Kopp M et al, 2008).Furthermore, gender is generally accepted as a signifi sewert guess factor for the development of mental distress. The solid ground wellness Organization acknowledges that a large majority of common mental health dise ases ar more frequently reported in the female gender than in their male counterparts. As an example common psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety are predominant in women. Conversely, there are other disorders of the mind that are more common in men. These embroil, but are non limited to, substance misuse (including alcohol dependence) and antisocial personality disorder (The World Health Organization). Nevertheless, there are no reported differences in the incidence of some severe mental disorders, like schizophrenia, in men and women. In addition to the gender-related differences authenticated in the incidence of these disorders, there have withal been reported differences in terms of the epidemiology and severity age of onset, symptom absolute frequency, social adjustment, prognosis and trajectory of the illness.The World Health Organization proffers possible explanation for the observed differences between genders men and women have differential withsta nding power over socioeconomic determinants of their mental health, social position, positioning and preaching in society and their susceptibility and exposure to specific mental health risks (The World Health Organization).Similarly, race could also be a find out factor for the development of mental illness. In addition, mental illness in some races, e.g. black and minority ethnic (BME) groups lav be further exacerbated by alleged discrepancies in the mental health act upons available to this potentially vulnerable groups of patients (Ferns P, 2008). A possibly rational explanation for the reason behind some(prenominal) disparities in mental health across diverse races could be the societal differences that are inherent to various cultural backgrounds.The main objective of this paper is to try out the social factors that can prompt mental distress, especially in women and people from BME populations, and to rationalise how these factors may actually roadologise the discour se of mental health.Mental malady in WomenThe natural subordinate role of women and gender stereotypes in most societies makes them prone to disorders of the mind. Psychoanalytic theories believe that patriarchy-based communities are associated with a higher rate of mental illness in women (Olfman S, 1994). These supremacy-governed organisations in which men are largely in control leave women with a consistent feeling of repression, which could culminate in mental distress. Indeed, in some extreme societies, women with more independent views who express anger or dissatisfaction with the standard patriarchal social structure are often seen as having psychological problems (Martin, 2003).According to The World Health Organization, gender-specific roles, negative life occurrences and stressors can adversely affect mental health. Clearly the impact of the latter factors (i.e. life experiences and stressors) is in no way exclusive to the female gender. However, it is the nature of some events that are sometimes commonplace in womens lives that could account for the documented gender-related differences. Risk factors for mental illness that mainly affect women include women-targeted violence, financial difficulties, inequality at work and in the society, burdensome responsibility, pregnancy-related issues, oppression, secretion, and abuse. there is a linear correlation between the frequency and severity of such social factors and the frequency and severity of female mental health problems. Adverse life events that initiate a sense of loss, inferiority, or entrapment can also predict depression (The World Health Organization).Furthermore, in a domino-effect way some female factors can also lead to mental illness, not just in the individual concerned, but also in subsequent generations and/ or interacting family and friends. For example maternal depression has been shown to be associated with failure of children to strive in the community, which in turn could culm inate in delays in the developmental process and subsequent psychological or psychiatric problems (Patel et al, 2004).In the past three decades, the conceive of women and mental health illness and their treatment in mental health services has been quite controversial (Martin J, 2003). From a social constructionist point of view, it is believed that some women are wrongly labelled as mentally ill merely because they do not accept certain (usually unfair and unfounded) gender-related stereotypical placement in the society. In this often-cited and somewhat controversial book chapter by Jennifer Martin (Mental health rethinking practices with women) she expresses great concern for the biological explanations of mental health which have the tendency to lay undue stress on the female reproductive biology that supposedly leads to a predisposition to mental illness. Such sexist notions tend to disproportionately highlight female conditions such as pre-menstrual tension, post-natal depress ion and menopause, in a bid to foster the notion that women are at higher risk of developing mental distress (Martin J, 2003). sort of of this allegedly short-sighted approach to the medicalisation of mental health in women, feminist theorists focus on female mental illness as a function of the lives they are made to live within patriarchal, and often oppressive, societies. Women are disadvantaged both socially and psychologically by these unreasonably subservient role expectations (Martin J, 2003).Mental Illness and RaceThe United Kingdom (UK) is a home to a very diverse and multicultural population, and BME communities make up approximately 7.8% of the total UK population (Fernando S, 2005). There are innate differences in the presentation, management and outcome of mental illness between the different races and ethnic groups (Cochrane R and Sashidharan S, 1996 Coid J et al, 2002 Bhui K et al, 2003).In a new-fangled policy report for the UK Government Office of Science, Jenkins R et al, (2008) explained that while some mental disorders appear to be more common in the BME populations, others are not. In addition, incidence rates of different mental disorders also vary among different ethnic groups within the BME populations. For example, depression is increasingly common in the Irish and Black Caribbeans, but not necessarily in the Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi sub-populations (Jenkins R et al, 2008). In the UK, the risk of suicide also varies by gender as well as ethnicity, with Asian men and Black Carribeans having lower rates than the general UK population, and Asian women having higher rates. Similarly, the incidence of psychoses is not uniformly elevated in all BME groups the highest incidence is seen in Black Caribbean and Black African groups in the UK, (4 10 times the normal rates seen in the White British group) (Jenkins R et al, 2008).In a retrospective case-control study of a representative pattern of more than 22,000 deceased individuals , Kung et al (2005) highlighted important disparities in mental health disorders, such as substance misuse, depressive symptoms and mental health service utilisation as possible determinants of suicidal behaviours and/ or attempts. Also, clear associations have been demonstrated between racial discrimination and the higher rates of mental illness among BME groups (McKenzie K, 2004). The rising incidence of suicides in some developing countries, as seen with Indian farmers, South American indigenes, alcohol-related deaths in east Europe, and young women in rural China, can be partly attributed to economic and social change in these nations (Sundar M, 1999 Phillips M et al, 1999).Pre-, peri- and post-migratory experiences can be major stressor determinants for the development of mental health illness (Jenkins R et al, 2008). Therefore, in order to understand the differences in these populations, it is of utmost importance to gain some insight into their cultural backgrounds and the happenings in their countries of origin all of which could be determinants of mental health.There is a direct relationship between social change and mental health and, in the recent past, many developing countries have undergone incomparable, fast-paced social and economic changes. As Patel et al (2006) have pointed out, such economic upheavals commonly go hand-in-hand with ruralurban migration and disruptive social and economic networks. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that The World Health Organization has acknowledged that such changes can cause sudden disruptive changes to social factors, such as income and employment, which can directly affect individuals and ultimately lead to an increased rate of mental disorders.Also Alean Al-Krenawi of the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev has extensively explored how exposure to political violence has influenced the mental health of Palestinian and Israeli teenagers (Al-Krenawi A, 2005). Al-Krenawi goes on to emphasise that the concept of m ental health in the Arab world is a multi-faceted one and is often shaped not only by the socio-cultural-political aspects of the society, but also by the spiritual and religious beliefs.In addition, the perception of racial discrimination has been identified as a portentous contributory factor to poor mental and overall health in BME groups even more important that the contribution of socio-economic factors (Jenkins R et al, 2008). It is disheartening to note that transfer and/ or constitutional racial discrimination is rife in the conceptual systems that are employed in the provision of mental health services (Wade J, 1993 Timimi S, 2005).Implications for the Practice of Mental Health Social WorkIn general, people suffering from mental illnesses receive substandard treatment from medical practitioners both in the emergency mode and in general treatment, and insurance coverage policies are usually unequal compared with their mentally balanced counterparts (McNulty J, 2004).For BME populations, especially Black and Asians, access and utilisation of mental health services are very different from those recorded for White people (Lloyd P and Moodley P, 1992 Bhui K, 1997). Exploring the pathway to precaution in mental health services, Bhui K and Bhugra D (2002) highlight that the most common point of access to mental health services for some BME groups is through the criminal justice system, instead of their general practitioner, as would be the case in their White counterparts.Major areas in which institutional racism is rife in the provision of mental health services to BME patients include mental health policy, diagnosis and treatment (Wade J, 1993). For example, Black patients with mental illness are more likely to be treated among forensic, psychiatric and detained populations (Coid J et al, 2002 Bhui K et al, 2003) and are also disproportionately treated with antipsychotic medication than psychotherapy (McKenzie K et al, 2001). Having said this, it is important to differentiate between racial bias and the attachment of racial and ethnic differences. In fact, ignoring these essential differences could actually be seen as a different type of bias (Snowden L, 2003).Already, members of the BME population face prejudice and discrimination this is doubled when there is the additional burden of mental illness, and is one of the major reasons why some of these patients choose not to seek adequate treatment (Gary F, 2005). As such, stigma arising from racism can be a significant barrier to treatment and well-being, and interventions to prevent this should be prioritised. It is therefore also of utmost importance that institutional racism be eliminated.As far back as 1977, Rack described some of the practical problems that arise in providing mental health tending in a multicultural society. These include, but are not limited to language, diagnostic differences, treatment expectations and acceptability. Some effort has been made to addres s some of these problems in England, by the development of projects for minority ethnic communities both within the statutory mental health services and in non-governmental sector (Fernando S, 2005). In addition, overcoming language barriers should second in eliminating racial and ethnic disparities towards achieving equal access and quality mental health care for all (Snowden L et al, 2007).The World Health Organization also draws attention to similar bias against the female gender in the treatment of mental disorders. Doctors are generally more likely to diagnose depression in women than in men, even with patients that present with similar symptoms and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) scores. Probably as a result of this bias, doctors are also more likely to prescribe mood-altering psychotropic drugs to women.Considering that immigrants and women separately face challenges with the provision of mental health care, it is expected that immigrant women wou ld have even more setbacks, owing to their double risk status. Using Kleinmans explanatory model, OMahony J and Donnelly T (2007) found that this unfortunate patient group face many obstacles due to cultural differences, social stigma spiritual and religious beliefs and practices, and unfamiliarity with Western medicine. However, the study did also highlight some positive influences of immigrant womens cultural backgrounds, which could be harnessed in the management of these patients.To effectively target and treat the diverse population that commonly present with mental illness in the UK, it is necessary to promote interculturalisation, i.e. the adaptation of mental health services to suit patients from different cultures (De Jong J and Van Ommeren M, 2005). Hollar M (2001) has developed an outline for the use of cultural formulations in psychiatric diagnosis, and advocates for the inclusion of the legacy of slavery and the history of racism to help understand the current healthca re crisis, especially in the Black population.ConclusionAs we have discussed extensively in this paper, females and patients of BME origin are commonly disadvantaged in the treatment of mental illnesses. Mental healthcare professionals need to eliminate all bias in the treatment of these patients, while at the same time, taking into consideration their inherent differences to ensure that mental health services provided are personalised to suit the individual patient.ReferencesAl-Krenawi A. tower mental health issues in Arab society. Israeli diary of Psychiatry and Related Sciences 2005 42 (2) 71.Bhui K. Service provision for capital of the United Kingdoms ethnic minorities. In Londons Mental Health, London Kings Fund (1997).Bhui K and Bhugra D. Mental illness in Black and Asian ethnic minorities pathways to care and outcomes. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 2002 8 26 33.Bhui K, Stansfeld S, Hull S, Priebe S, Mole F, Feder G. Ethnic variations in pathways to specialist mental hea lth care a systematic review. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2003 182 5 16.Cochrane R and Sashidharan S. 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Mental Health Today 2005 21.Wade J. Institutional racism an analysis of the mental health system. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1993 63 (4) 536 544.cervical crab louse Types, Causes and CuresCervical Cancer Types, Causes and CuresBy Omar AbdulleWhat is Cervical Cancer?Cervical genus Cancer is a disease that affects the cervix of the female reproductive system. The cervix is located in the lower part of the uterus it connects the vagina to the uterus. Cervical cancer can be separate to two types, Squamous cell carcinomasand Adenocarcinomas. Squamous cell carcinomas account for 80-90 % of all cervical cancer cases. Meanwhile, Adenocarcinomas in found in the glandular cells of the cervix makes up for 10-20% of cervical cancer cases.1Most cervical cancer starts in the cells in the transformation zone. The cells do not immediately change into cancer. The normal cells of the cervix slowly develop auspicious tumours that turn into cancer. Only some of the wom en with pre-cancerous tumours in the cervix pass on develop cancer. It normally takes several years for benign tumours to turn into malignant tumours.Statistics indicate that 1,500 Canadian women will be diagnosed with cervical cancer in 2016. An estimated 400 will die from it.2CausesMost cases of cervical cancer are caused by a unsound type of HPV. HPV is a virus that is passed from person to person through genital contact, such as vaginal, anal, or oral sex. If the HPV infection does not go away(predicate) on its own, it may cause cervical cancer over time.3 The viruses in the sexual transmitted (HPV) trigger abnormal behavior in the cervical cells make pre-cancerous conditions.Risk factorsMany sexual partners.Early sexual activity.Weak insubordinate system.Smoking.Detection and DiagnosingDetectingCervical cancer that is detected early can be treated successfully. Doctors recommend regular screening to detect any abnormal cells in the cervix. During screening Doctors will con duct Pap tests to find out the DNA of the cervical cells. The purpose of Pap test is to spot the cancer cells in the cervix. If not diagnosed with cervical cancer, doctors highly suggest continuing screening as risks of getting cervical cancer are high.DiagnosingIf cancerous cells are found in the cervix, Doctors will perform the following tests to examine the cervix. The tests are cowman Biopsy Involves a sharp tool to pinch off cervical tissue for further examination.Endocervical curettage small spoon-shaped instrument to brush a tissue sample from the cervix.The final stage of detecting and diagnosing cervical cancer is called staging. At this point, Doctors have determined you have cervical cancer. Staging can be dual-lane in to for sub-sections. They areStage I Cancer is restricted.Stage II Cancer is existent in the cervix and upper vagina.Stage III Cancer is moving.Stage IV Cancer has spread to other nearby organs and parts of the body.Precautionary stepsTaking precautio nary steps is the right path to reduce the risk of contracting cervical cancer. Experts suggestAvoid exposure to Human Papilloma Virus (HPV).Get a HPV vaccine.Avoid smoking.Forms of Treatment sound like other forms of cancer, cervical cancer can be treated through the main forms of treatment. I.e. Surgery, Chemotherapy, Radiation therapy, and Targeted therapy.SurgeryDetermines how far the cancer has spread.Treats cancer successfully during the early stages.RadiationTreats cancer that has spread excessively.ChemotherapyTreats cervical cancer that returns after treatment.Targeted therapyDrug used with chemo to stop cancer growth.This method is still in processCurrent research and Potential CuresDoctors and scientists are working hard to find out the best ways to prevent and best treat cervical cancer. These methods will improve the functionality of the treatments method, detection and diagnosing. Improvements are being to screening and detection methods. Another innovative and also po tential cure is called Immunotherapy, also known as biologic therapy. This is designed to boost the bodys natural defenses to fight the cancer. It uses materials either made by the body or in a laboratory to improve, target, or restore immune system function.5ReferencesTypes of Cervical Cancer CTCA. (0001, January 01). Retrieved March 02, 2017, from http//www.cancercenter.com/cervical-cancer/types/Cervical cancer statistics Canadian Cancer Society. (n.d.). Retrieved March 02, 2017, from http//www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/cervical/statistics/?region=onEPublications. (n.d.). Retrieved March 02, 2017, from https//www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/cervical-cancer.htmlCervical Cancer Latest Research. Cancer.Net. N.p., 10 June 2016. Web. 02 Mar. 2017.